| Concept/Content |
strong reciprocity / Hadzabe Tribe (hunter-gatherers) of Tanzania |
| Information caption |
Strong reciprocity through punishment of selfish behavior seems present in all human cultures. They include not only different nations on different continents and Oceania, but also cultures with widely divergent environments, economies (from foraging and pastoralism to industrialism) and residence patterns (from nomadic to sedentary) (Heinrich et al 2006; Herrmann, Thoni and Gächter 2008). Most important, perhaps, negative sanctions are found in small mobile hunter-gatherer cultures — similar to our Paleolithic ancestors — where they help maintain egalitarian societies (Boehm 1999).
Selective interaction and punishment may combine. When given the option, human subjects prefer to join groups functioning cooperatively through sanctions over groups where they are "free" to be selfish but can reap only limited benefits (Güreck et al 2006). Cooperative groups (or tribes) are thus not necessarily at a relative disadvantage. Indeed, mathematical models indicate that being able to choose between such groups (or not join either) may have been critical to the origin of punishment-based cooperation (Hauert et al 2007). As suggested by Hardin (1968), the tragedy of the commons may be solved by "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon." Again, social-level dynamics can affect how individuals act.
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| Inquiry caption |
What about strong reciprocity among humans? When Darwin began considering the evolution of morality, he reflected on a possible role for the "fear of others acting in unison" and "the fear of punishment" (M Notebook, p. 151; 1871, p. 92). However, consider that punitive behavior involves a cost of extra effort or resources. Do you think humans accept these added costs?
Recent studies do show that individuals, even in anonymous experimental situations, do accept personal cost to ensure group benefits. Moreover, others respond to their punitive actions (Fehr and Gächter 2002). Punishment of selfish behavior seems present in all human cultures. They include not only different nations on different continents and Oceania, but also cultures with widely divergent environments, economies (from foraging and pastoralism to industrialism) and residence patterns (from nomadic to sedentary) (Heinrich et al 2006; Herrmann, Thoni and Gächter 2008). Most notably, perhaps, negative sanctions are found in small mobile hunter-gatherer cultures — similar to our Paleolithic ancestors (Boehm 1999). What do these findings imply for the origin and maintenance of an egalitarian society, such as is typically found in such hunter-gatherer cultures (but not among chimpanzees)?
Target Concept: Social organisms may enforce cooperation through rewards and punishment. |
| Photographer |
Lesley Millhouser |
| Credit |
Photo by Lesley Millhouser. |
| SIZE in pixels [file size] |
633x458 |
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