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Preamble: [1] A Biological Approach to Explaining Morality

• [2] Morality is a form of behavior.
• [3] Non-human species may exhibit various stages in the evolution of morality.
• [4] Biologists borrow from other disciplines in characterizing behavior as moral.
• [5] Philosophers identify at least three frameworks for conceptualizing morality: moral outcomes, moral motives (or intent), and moral systems.
  > Table 1
• [6] Evolution itself does not express or yield values.
• [7] Science is limited to description.

[8] Moral Outcomes (Behavioral Genetics)

• [8] Cooperation and helping behavior are simple evolutionary puzzles.
• [9-11] Organisms may cooperate when each benefits.
• [12-13] Some cases of "costly" helping are apparent only.
• [14-16] Some cases of costly helping are explained by genetic relatedness.
  > kin selection, inclusive fitness
• [17-19] Organisms can determine kin relatedness in many ways, sometimes by indirect cues.
• [20-21] Some cases of costly helping are explained, alternatively, by reciprocity.
  > reciprocity

• [23] Darwin proposed the moral sense as an inevitable outcome of four elements: social instinct, memory, language and habit.
• [24-27] Non-human organisms exhibit sympathetic concern for both kin and non-related individuals.
  > sympathy
• [28-29] Humans and some other primates exhibit moral sentiments at a very early age.
• [30-33] Moral thinking and feeling have a neurological basis.
• [34-35] Moral behaviors may be learned as part of an open behavioral program.
  > open behavioral program, learning, emergence
• [36] Cooperation and helping behavior may be intentional.